QUESTIONS & ANSWERS-NOVEL CoV-19
What is the main difference between the conventional vaccine and mRNA vaccine?
The conventional vaccines contain the microbes either live or dead.
But the mRNA vaccines are free from any living or dead organism. It contains only the genetic material like DNA or RNA from a different source such as chicken eggs. Hence they are safer than conventional vaccines.
Narrate in a simple way of making mRNA vaccine:-
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| The mRNA Vaccine |
In this first, they extract the DNA from a living cell such as the living embryo of the chicken. By using the DNA as a template many copies of mRNA are made. Each mRNA are coded to produce a particular antigen.
These mRNAs are packed separately in lipids and introduced into the human cell either by injection, nasal spray or by intradermal scratchings.
When they enter the human cells the cell's protein-making machinery gets activated.
The cells ribosomes catch the mRNA, read the codes and build the antigenic protein with the help of tRNAs which bring the amino acids according to the mRNA codes.
The antigen thus formed exit out of the cell by exocytosis or by carrier transport. Once the antigen is out of the cell and sticking on the outer surface of the body-cell, the body's immunity system is activated and antibodys invade towards the affected
area.
What are the three types of mRNA vaccines?
1.Single mRNA vaccine-Contains a single strand of mRNA encoded to produce antigen.
2.Multiple mRNA vaccine-Contains multiple strands of coded mRNAs to produce a multiple antigens in a single dose. This is conenient to reduce the size and frequency of the vaccination.
3.Dendritic Cell Vaccines:- The coded mRNAs are translated in the laboratory outside the human body (in vitro) and the produced thus is stuck with dendritic cell (the antigen-presenting cells in mammalian immunity system) and injected into the human body to boost the immunity instantly.
Dendritic cell vaccines are commonly used to treat prostate cancer.
COVID-19 AND KIDNEY DAMAGES
Is COVID-19 affecting kidneys?
COVID-19 step by step affects many organs of the body including lungs, heart, liver, and kidneys.
What is the step by step order of the organs affected by COVID-19?
1. The lungs
2. The heart
3. The pancreas
4. The kidneys
5. The intestines
6. The brine
7. The liver
Who is most likely to be suffered from kidney injuries?
1.Elderly patients with or without a history of kidney damages.
2.Those who are under dialysis.
3.Those who already have mild kidney injuries before the COVID-19 attack.
4.Those who carry the virus without symptoms for a long time.
5. Some patients got a prolonged period of hospital stay.
What are the symptoms of kidney injuries due to virus infections?
1.Proteinuria
2.Elevated blood creatinine
3.Elevated blood urea nitrogen (BUN)
4.Elevated blood potassium level.
5.Abnormal blood work.
How COVID-19 Affect Kidneys?
1.By ACE2 receptors.COVID-19 use these receptors for cell entry and damage it. ACE2 receptors are widely distributed throughout our body including the kidneys.
2.By low-level oxygen. COVID-19 causes low oxygen levels in the blood due to pneumonia, and clogged air chambers which resulted in respiratory depression. Because of the unavailability of sufficient oxygen in the blood for nourishment, the kidney cells slowly die to result in acute kidney injury which eventually precipitates acute kidney damage (AKD).
3.By cytokine storms. Due to an abnormally over immune response in some people leading to an emergency condition known as a cytokine storm. In that condition, the body sends a heavy influx of inflammatory cytokines which causes cell damage in the kidney.
What are the other possibilities by which COVID-19 affect kidneys?
COVID-19 possibly causes kidney damages by elevating blood pressure through its cardiovascular effects and by elevating blood glucose levels through its damaging effects on pancreatic beta cells.
Do kidneys recover after the virus is cleared from the body?
Some patients who suffered from mild Acute Kidney or Tubular Injury (AKI or ATI) due to COVID-19 infection and are not undergone hemodialysis may have the possibility of complete recovery from the injury.
Who are the COVID-19 patients more likely to get permanent kidney damages?
1.Aged people (>70 years)
2.Undernourished and immune-compromised people
3.Those who already have or had and cured Kidney Diseases as comorbidities before the COVID-19 infection.
4.Diabetes Mellitus
5.High and low Blood Pressure
6.Cardiac Patients.
7. Patients suffering from AIDS, Lupus, multiple sclerosis and autoimmune diseases
In rare cases, some reports say there are otherwise healthy patients cured and discharged from the hospital came back with kidney problems.
Should COVID-19 kidney patients continue their regular medications?
Yes, but under their doctors' supervision.
The patients who underwent recent kidney transplant surgery should continue their immunosuppressant medications such as corticosteroids, cyclophosphamide, or rituximab should continue their medicines with doctors' advice. They should follow strict social distance.
ESTROGEN PROTECTIONS
What are the types of estrogens secreted in a female and which organ secrets estrogens?
Ovaries secrete two sets of female sex hormones. They are estrogens and progesterone.
There are three types of estrogens secreted in females. They are
1.Estradiol
2.Estrone
3.Estriol.
Are estrogens give protective advantages to women over men?
The doctors say yes.
The statistics show that more men are fatally affected by this COVID-19 pandemic than young women.
This is due to the protective nature of estrogens that are present higher in females than males.
Are estrogens cardioprotective? If yes, how?
Estrogens raise HDL, good cholesterol, and decrease bad (LDL) cholesterol and thereby protect the inner wall of the artery from atherosclerosis and injuries.
Estrogens keep the blood vessels more healthy and flexible in order to facilitate good blood circulation.
By facilitating healthy blood flow in the coronary circulation cardiac health is well maintained.
How estrogen protects the lungs?
Estrogens are anti-inflammatory and antioxidant. They inhibit inflammatory secretions like cytokines creatine kinase one of the major manifestations of COVID-19 disease.
By presenting cytokine storm estrogens protects lungs from pneumonia, bronchitis, asthma, chronic and acute obstructive lung diseases.
Because of their antioxidant property estrogens have more benefits overall body systems.
Give a brief picture of Taxonomy of coronaviruses:-
Realm = Riboviria
Order =Nidovirales
Family =Coronaviridae
Subfamily =Orthocoronaviridae
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| Fig-1 |
What are the four subdivisions of the family,coronaviridae?
1.Alphacoronaviridae
2.Betacoronaviridae
3.Gammacoronaviridae
4.Deltacoronaviridae
Out of the above four, only some selective species from the alpha and beta coronaviridae are human infectives
What are they?
1.NL63 CoV- Alpha - Mild cold symptom
1-A. 229E CoV Alpha -Mild '' ''
2.OC43 CoV- Beta - Mild '' ''
3.HKU-1 Co V- Beta - Mild '' ''
4.HKU-4 CoV - Beta -Hard Bronchitis and Pneumonia
5.SARS CoV- Beta - Hard ''
6.MERS CoV- Beta -Hard ''
7.SARS CoV-2- Beta - Hard (COVID-19) ,,
Which are the mild infective coronaviruses and their respective human cell receptors?
1. NL63 CoV -SA receptors at the nasal area
1-A. 229E Co- SA receptor as above
2. OC43 CoV -SA receptors as above
3. HKU1 CoV -SA receptor SA-Sialic Acid
Which two human coronaviruses are the oldest viruses among the coronaviruses infecting the children to produce mild cold symptoms and to gain immunity against the other two coronaviruses?
In the mid sixty of the last century, the first mild cold symptoms were identified in children by two coronaviruses namely HCoV OC43 and HCoV 229E.
The infection develops immunity against the newly found out coronaviruses namely HCoV NL63 and HCo HKU-1
Which are the harsh infective coronaviruses and their respective receptors on the human cells?
1.HKU4 CoV -DPP4 DPP4-Dipeptidylepeptidase4
2.MERS CoV - DPP4
3.SARS CoV- - ACE2 ACE-2-Angiotensin-Converting- Enzyme2
4.SARS CoV-2 - ACE2 (COVID-19)
What is the size of the novel coronavirus?
It is one of the biggest and heaviest among all the viruses.
Approximately 500 nanometers in diameter. It is about a little smaller than bacteria.
It contains the largest positive-sense single-strand RNA genome which is composed of about 30000 nucleotides.
One coronavirus has about 75 spike proteins and each spike has approximately 20 nm in length.
What systems are affected by COVID-19 disease and How the SARS-CoV-2 virus affects our systems?
The novel coronavirus uses ACE2 receptors to attack our body cells. This is the basic pathology of this viral attack. Hence where ever these receptors are present in our body this virus too spread its infection towards there.
By what order the novel coronavirus affects our body systems?
1. Respiratory System, followed by,
2. Cardiovascular System, followed by,
3. Pancreas, Kidney, and Liver, followed by
4. Brain and CNS followed by
5.Digestive System.
What is the ACE2 receptor?
It is a protein enzyme that converts the vasopressor and vasoconstrictor hormone angiotensin-II to the non-pressor vasodilator hormone angiotensin-1-7.
Similarly, it also produces another vasodilator hormone angiotensin-1-9 by the conversion of angiotensin-I.
Thus ACE2 is the predominant enzyme that relieves high blood pressure.
The same ACE2 also functions as a receptor in tissue cells of many systems such as respiratory, cardiovascular, renal, digestive, and nervous systems. Thus the COVID-19 spreads its wings through all those systems and attacks them.
What are the types of ACE2 receptors in our bodies?
There are two types of ACE2 available in our bodies.
1. Soluble ACE2 is circulating in our body fluids and merely serves as an enzyme and not a receptor.
2. Tissue bound insoluble ACE2 is serving primarily as a receptor by adhering to the outer protoplasmic layer of the cell.
Give a few examples of cells to which the tissue bound ACE2 are present:-
1.Alveolar epithelial cells such as pneumocytes and macrophages
2.Endothelial cells of cardiovascular systems
3. Endothelial cells of Kidney, liver, and pancreas, etc.
4.Enterocytes of the small intestine.
Which ACE2 is targeted by the novel coronavirus?
Both are targeted by the virus equally.
Why men are dying more by this virus than women?
1. Men are having more ACE2 receptors and the cofactor TMPRSS-2 a serine protease enzyme that aids the virus invade the cell than women.
2. Men have fewer chances to keep social distances than women
3. Young women have more estrogen which is a cardioprotective, anti-inflammatory, and antioxidant benefits.
What is TMPRSS2 or TMPS2?
Trans Membrane Protease Serine 2 is a serine enzyme receptor found in many cells along with the ACE2 receptor.
The novel coronavirus before attacking a cell needs its S-1 spike protein to be fixed into the ACE2 receptor of the cell. The TMPRSS2 facilitates and helps the virus by cleaving and priming the S-1 spike protein to firmly fix with the ACE2 receptor and help the to fuse with the human cell membrane
Why SARS CoV-2 is more highly contagious than its parent virus SARS CoV?
Because of its S-Protein affinity towards the ACE2 receptor is 10 to 20 times higher than that of the SARS CoV.
What is CAMOSTAT MESILATE and can it be a new hope to solve the pandemic problem?
Camostat mesylate or mesylate is one of the known best TMPRSS-2 inhibitors. By inhibiting TMPRSS-2 the priming of the viral S-Protein is blocked and thereby its cell entry is also prevented.
This drug used in Japan for nonalcoholic pancreatitis. It is orally active.
Nafamostat mesylate is another drug in this series that is in use in Japan to treat pancreatitis. It can be given intravenously.
How Chloroquine and Hydroxychloroquine work against the novel coronavirus?
Both the drugs in lab testing prevent terminal phosphorylation of ACE2 which is necessary for the viral spike to fix on it and elevate the cytoplasmic pH of the cell unfavourable for the viral replication.
Why this Pandemic is more powerful than any other viral pandemic?
Because of its power of ease to catch its human cell receptors. This is because of its body structure and genetic mutations at its 501 and to a lesser extent 494 positions at its genome. The novel coronavirus seems faster than any other virus especially its host-virus SARS CoV in catching the human cell receptors.
Is a virus a living organism?
Living organisms in general whether they are unicellular or multicellular must have metabolism and growth or capable to multiply or replicate. For that, they should have metabolic machinery in their cells.
But the virus is neither a living nor a dead organism but it is hanging in between these two states and can be categorized as a plasmid. A plasmid is something like spermatozoa, enzymes, or WBCs.
The virus needs to infect a host cell to use the host cell metabolic machinery to proceed with its metabolism and replication.
What is the metabolic machinery of a cell?
The simple one-word answer is the protoplasm
What is protoplasm?
1.The cytoplasm, and its contents like the vacuoles, the vesicles carrying the nutrients, and the outer cell cover.
2.The mitochondria, both hard and soft-The powerhouse of the cell
3.The Golgi Body
4.The mRNAs circulating throughout the cytoplasm to exchange messages between the cytoplasm and nucleus.
5. The tRNAs helps transcriptions of the DNA during cell divisions. In other words, they transfer and help ribosomal build up.
6. The rRNA helps the ribosomes to build amino acids in a proper order to build proteins.
What is cytoplasm?
The cytoplasm is the fluid part of a cell.
What are the contents of a coronavirus?
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| Fig-2 |
The coronavirus is composed of the following 4 proteins:-
1.The RNA
2.The Capsid which covers the RNA
3.The outer envelope
4. The spike proteins spread over the envelope.
What are the specific characters of corona RNA?
1.Positive sense single-stranded
2.30 to 32 kb long (1 kb (Kilobase)=1000 nucleotides)
3. Composed of 30000 to 32000 nucleotides.
What is a nucleotide and what it contains?
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| Fig-3 |
RNA is having many curlings in a zigzag manner ( figure-3)
Each curling along with its four amino acids is one nucleotide.
What are the four amino acids in an RNA nucleotide?
Uracil
Cytosine
Adenine
Guanine
What is the difference between a DNA and an RNA nucleotide?
The difference in the amino acid sequence of the nucleotide is very important.
DNA nucleotide contains Thymine as the first amino acid replacing uracil.
Is SARS CoV-2 genetically engineered?
Study research has been published in the journal Nature Medicine regarding the morphology and genetic sequences of the novel coronavirus. The study was conducted by Dr Kristian Andersen of Scripps Research Institute, La Jolla CA, and Dr.Robert Garry of Tulane University School of Medicine, New Orleans. The study was partly cooperated by America's National Institute of Health, Maryland.
The study concluded that the virus is natural and not genetically engineered.
They said that some folks are making outrageous claims about this novel virus as genetically engineered in a lab.
But the study published in the journal has not proved anything positive. Of course, they are experts in their fields, but they should yield trusted results.
The following questions and doubts are to be answered by them.
1. Why China delayed informing the world about the incidence of the first infection which happened in Wuhan in the very first week of December 2019?
2. Why the government of P.Rep of China silenced Dr Lee an ophthalmologist when he tried to reveal the incident?
3. Why Government of China ignored the statements by two scientists from their country and scientists from America about the lack of safety and security of the level-4 certified Wuhan Institute of Virology.?
4. Is that true a virologist was terminated from the institute and arrested with the charge of selling specimens of infected animals and birds at the Hunan Sea Food Market?
5. What about the arrests of, many Chinese virologists in the U.S. and Canada for illegally tried to send many ampules of viral researches to China?
6. The Study said that the RNA sequences of the novel coronavirus are not similar to that of any old and already existing human coronaviruses but similar to that of bats and pangolins coronaviruses.
Further, the study said that to engineer a new viral gene in a lab a virologist must need an already existing viral genome to manipulate it. Then only it may have similarities to anyone of its existing family members. But the novel coronavirus is not similar to any of the existing human coronaviruses. Therefore, the study says that this is not a lab-made virus. This is a naturally mutated one from the other species such as from a bat coronavirus. But they failed to explain how the bat coronavirus changed its genome to become a human coronavirus without an intermediate source because to change the genome sequence any virus needs a mid-host. Which is the mid host in this case? The study says nothing about it.
The question is why can't a bat virus be isolated in a lab, and genetically engineered to mutate into a novel form to infect human beings?
7. The modern nanotechnology is highly developed. Highly advanced nano-scientific instruments are available to isolate a single microbe from any source. Hence, why can't it be isolated in a lab from a source and artificially mutated.?
Mutation required an alteration in the nucleotide sequences. Are they not possible by modern nanoscience.?
8. There are at least four coronavirus strains commonly present in any healthy person's nasal fluids. They are,
1. 229E-CoV
2. OC43-CoV
3. NL63-CoV
4. HKU1-CoV (CoV--Corona Virus)
These viruses are already existing for decades, all over the world. These viruses cause not more than a mild common cold or fever.
During their long life span, they existed without any mutation.
But from 2002 onward the things went into a dangerous direction by the detection of the first virulent corona viral infection in southern China. They extracted the virus and found that it was more virulent than the commonly existing coronaviruses. They named it SARS-CoV.
The virus spread all over the world and claimed at least 800 lives out of 8000 infected people.
In 2012 another pandemic was emerged in the Middle East and infected nearly 3000 people worldwide with 700 fatalities.
They named it MERS-CoV
In 2014 the third pandemic emerged in Hong Kong and South Korea with the same virulence of MERS.
They named it HKU4-CoV.
Initially, the scientists thought that these viruses which started infections from different countries must have emerged from different hosts or carriers.
For example, SARS which started in China must have been spread by civets and ferrets from the Himalayas.
MERS must have been spread by camels which are common in the Middle East.
But confusion started by the later discovery that MERS is a mutated form of HKU4 which is a bat virus.
Interestingly the scientists found that bats are the mammals that can act as a large reservoir all the corona family. 100 coronaviruses can be carried by bats alone.
It is now known that the Wuhan Institute of Virology was using more than 650 bats specimens alone per day for their researches. This number is more than the allowed one specified.
Why they were allowed to do such illegal practices?
If these questions are not answered in time by the researchers then it means that the world is slowly pushed towards a black hole with no return.
Is Covid-19 dangerous to those who have chronic or acute bronchitis or COPD? (03-05-2020)
It is according to the Center for Disease Control and Prevention (C.D.C.) that those who have health conditions such as chronic bronchitis and Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease (C.O.P.D.) may be at high risk of serious illness from Covid-19.
Chronic bronchitis is a lung disease that lasts for several months or years is a part of C.O.P.D.Since all these conditions affect lungs the novel coronavirus infection may worsen the condition.
Fortunately according to the recent studies which inform us that chronic bronchitis does not seem to increase the risk of developing COVID-19, or it is not a cause to occur COVID-19.
However, having chronic bronchitis or C.O.P.D. may increase a person's risk of developing serious lung damage if he comes to contract the virus.
4-Aminoquinolines And Other Drugs in Trials:
What are 4 aminoquinolines? Why they are called by such name?
They are called as 4-aminoquinolines because of their chemical structures shown below:-
In the above structural formulae of both chloroquine and its oxygenated form a common moiety highlighted by the blue circles. That is the quinoline structure which gives the compounds their antibiotic, antiviral, and other pharmacological activities. The number 4 indicates the 4th carbon atom to which the NH-amino group is attached and hence the name 4-aminoquinolines. Even though there are plenty of antimalarial drugs are available in this group we are going to focus only on these two drugs as they have been highlighted by the prestigious VIPs like U.S.President Donald Trump and French President Emmanuel Macron.
Describe their antiviral activities?
In general chloroquine and its analogue hydroxychloroquine have antiviral and immunomodulatory activities in addition to their antimalarial activities. Hence they can be used successfully to treat autoimmune diseases such as rheumatic arthritis, and lupus erythematosus.
Hence the doctors worry if the stock of chloroquine and hydroxychloroquine is depleted for the unproven therapy of COVID-19 then those patients of malaria and autoimmune diseases who are in dire need of these drugs as a proven therapy would be at risk.
Chloroquine and HCQ both are weak bases. Any virus needs an acid environment for all its activities. As they are weak bases these quinoline drugs increase the cell pH to alkalinity (say above 8) which is unfavourable to the viral activities such as cell entry, RNA release, and replications. Also, they block the ACE2 receptors by which the SARS CoV-2 enters the cell.
Encounter their antiviral activities with examples?
Chloroquine was tried in 1960 with the lab culture of Epstein-Barr (H4N1)virus in vitro test but gave a negative result. Chloroquine seemed to increases the viral activities of the H4N1 virus. Epstein-Barr virus causes a rare but serious illness of salivary glands causes mouth and throat ulcers, and lymph node oedema elevation of monocytes in the blood, etc. The condition is known by the name mononucleosis.
Chloroquine inhibits the Ebola viral replications and activities in the lab but worsens the condition while given to the Ebola-infected guinea pigs.
On a similar encounter, chloroquine disrupts the activities of the chikungunya virus in the lab tests but worsen the infection when given to chikungunya infected monkeys.
Similarly, while chloroquine inhibits the viral activities of Dengue and influenza in the laboratory it is not curing the diseases while given to human beings infected with the respective viruses.
Chloroquine reduced the transmission of the Zica virus to the offsprings of five infected mice. This is the only positive in vivo results obtained with chloroquine outside the lab.
Hence scientists could not come to a final conclusion with these 4-aminoquinolines in Covid-19 treatments.
Why chloroquine is acting differently on the virus in the lab and inside the human bodies?
This is because of the complexity of the handling of the drug by our human bodies to lead the drug from the site of administration to the site of excretion. This is known as Complex Chloroquine Pharmacokinetics.
Is that true that China is using hydroxychloroquine and chloroquine successfully on the cure of Covid-19?
There are total confusion and disappointments. A Chinese commentary mentioning 15 trials reported that "so far 100 patients have demonstrated that chloroquine phosphate is superior to its sulfate salt to the control treatment in reducing the severity of pneumonia" with no further elaborations.
A preliminary account of one of those trials, a placebo-controlled randomized study of two different doses of hydroxychloroquine in 62 patients with radio examination of pneumonia with mild hypoxia, reported small improvements in the body temperature, and cough in the higher dose treatment group. But the data in published protocol differed from the original report, the result in the low dose group were not published, and the trial seems to have been stopped prematurely.
In another open non-randomized study of hydroxychloroquine published in blueprints supported efficacy in 20 patients but the trial design was poor and the result is not reliable as six patients dropped out from the test arm. Out of six two because of admission into an IC and one because he died. The method of efficacy was viral load, not a clinical endpoint, and assessments were made on day 6 after the treatments.
Does the American FDA give Emergency Use Authorization to clinics to use hydroxychloroquine?
Yes at first they issued the EUA by the pressure from the President but later they have withdrawn it as they realized that the 4-aminoquinoline therapy must need further confirmation. Dr Peter Lurie M.D., M.P.H., a former FDA leader advised them to withdraw the EUA.
Do France banned the export of hydroxychloroquine? Is that mean the 4-aminoquinoline therapy a success there?
No there are confused and unconfirmed reports surfacing there. This is because of a secret meeting between President Macron and an alleged microbiologist Dr Didier Raoult, who was conducted in Marseille, southern France at the virologist's own laboratory. Nobody was allowed including the media. The virologist allegedly claimed that he cured 100 COVID-19 patients with a combination of hydroxychloroquine and azithromycin. But many doctors and scientists dismissed his claim as fabrication.
What is the final verdict regarding the chloroquine therapy.?
Wait and see. May be or may not be. The problem is the dosage regimen. Serious side effects are rare and uncommon if it is within or equal to the antimalarial dosage.
The virus is stronger than the malarial parasites and needs a high dosage with long time treatments.
Now some patients have been given 200mg as a bolus injection of hydroxychloroquine followed by 100 mg daily for at least 10 days. Hydroxychloroquine is preferred as it is safer than chloroquine but less potent.
What are the other options?
Another option is interferon-1(IFN-1)
The results are mixed and not relevant. In general the subtype IFN-β
is more potent than IFN-α.
The IFN-β1b and IFN-β1a are the most potent among all other subtypes in IFN-1.
Most of the disease improvement episodes contain combination treatments using IFN-1 with antivirals like lopinavir/ritonavir; ribavirin, remdesivir, and corticosteroids. In these treatments, the confusion arouses as really the success of the therapy was due to IFN-1, combination, or any of the combined antivirals.
Because of this confusion, the IFN-1 cannot be imposed to treat the novel CoV-19.
Treatments with IFN-1 needs the patient should be free from other comorbidities.
GENERAL:-
1. What is an antibiotic in the old definition?
Anciently an Antibiotic is defined as a substance produced by a living thing either
from plant kingdom or animal kingdom to kill or suppress another living thing such as
a macrobiotic is known as Antibiotic
2. What is the modern definition?
An Antibiotic is a medicine produced naturally by a living organism as above or
produced synthetically to kill or suppress the microorganisms
3. What are the important things that find out the selection of antibiotics
Identifying the microbes by Gram tests or Culture tests
Identifying the microbes by Gram tests or Culture tests
Safety of Medicin
Site of infection
Site of infection
Medical History
4. How antibiotics are classified?
a.Cell Wall Synthesis Inhibitors (e.g)Penicillins; Cephalosporins;
b.Protein Synthesis Inhibitors (e.g) Teracyclins; Aminoglycosides; Erythromycin
c.DNA Synthesis Inhibitors (e.g) Quinolones, Fluoroquinolones;
d.Cell Membrane Damaging (e.g)Polene microbes like Amphotericin-B
5.What is Bactericidal and what is Bacteriostatic?
Any antibiotic which kills the bacteria is known as Bactericidal and any antibiotic
suppress only the growth or multiplication of the organism is known as Bacteriostatic.
Bacteriostatic gives a chance to our body to kill and eliminate the organism by its own immune system
6. Give examples for bactericidal :-(e.g)Penicillins, Cephalosporins. Aminoglycosides, Quinolones, and vancomycin
7. Give examples for bacteriostatic:-e.g. Chloramphenicol; Tetracyclines; Erythromycin; Clindamycin; Lincomycin; Trimethoprim; Nitrofurantoin
8. What is meant by the term Antibiotic Spectrum?
The antibiotic spectrum is the efficacy of the drug can able to affect the number of type of organisms. The more the number the broader the spectrum.The lesser the number the
narrower the spectrum
9. Is it possible to a combination treatment of one antibiotic with another?
In an emergency situation such as in the empiric treatment of pneumonia the combination
treatment is employed but due to severe toxicity, it is better to avoid in regular practice
10. What is Drug Resistance?
If a microorganism provides naturally or acquires a capacity of withstanding against an
or prolonged use of a particular antibiotic to which it is previously susceptible is said to be Drug Resistance
11.By what methods a microorganism becomes drug-resistant?
a.Production of drug inactivating enzymes,e.g.Beta-lactamase
b.Impermeability to the penetration of the drug into the cell or rapid excretion.
Changes in the receptor structure shape
Alteration of metabolic pathways
12. What is empirical therapy.?
A blindfold therapy by using one or more antibiotics combined without identifying
the organism if the risk is outweighing the side effects
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2. Which are the major types of sulphonamides?
Sulphadiazine, Sulphamethoxazole, Sulfisaxazole, Sulphacytin, and Sulphamethizole
3. What is the main effect of sulphonamide?
It is a bacteriostatic but a broad-spectrum antibiotic
The antibiotic spectrum is the efficacy of the drug can able to affect the number of type of organisms. The more the number the broader the spectrum.The lesser the number the
narrower the spectrum
9. Is it possible to a combination treatment of one antibiotic with another?
In an emergency situation such as in the empiric treatment of pneumonia the combination
treatment is employed but due to severe toxicity, it is better to avoid in regular practice
10. What is Drug Resistance?
If a microorganism provides naturally or acquires a capacity of withstanding against an
or prolonged use of a particular antibiotic to which it is previously susceptible is said to be Drug Resistance
11.By what methods a microorganism becomes drug-resistant?
a.Production of drug inactivating enzymes,e.g.Beta-lactamase
b.Impermeability to the penetration of the drug into the cell or rapid excretion.
Changes in the receptor structure shape
Alteration of metabolic pathways
12. What is empirical therapy.?
A blindfold therapy by using one or more antibiotics combined without identifying
the organism if the risk is outweighing the side effects
Sulphonamides
1. What is the chemistry of sulphonamide?
A sulphonic acid amide group (-SO2-NH-) attached with an aniline moiety (C6H5NH2)
known as Sulpha Anilamide or Sulphonamide see the structure below:-
2. Which are the major types of sulphonamides?
Sulphadiazine, Sulphamethoxazole, Sulfisaxazole, Sulphacytin, and Sulphamethizole
3. What is the main effect of sulphonamide?
It is a bacteriostatic but a broad-spectrum antibiotic
1 comment:
Very clear and illustrative
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